Abstract Extinction is the complete loss of a species, but the accuracy of that status depends on the overall information about the species. Dracaena umbraculifera was described in 1797 from a cultivated plant attributed to Mauritius, but repeated surveys failed to relocate it and it was categorized as Extinct on the IUCN Red List. However, several individuals labelled as D. umbraculifera grow in botanical gardens, suggesting that the species’ IUCN status may be inaccurate. The goal of this study was to understand (1) where D. umbraculifera originated, (2) which species are its close relatives, (3) whether it is extinct, and (4) the identity of the botanical garden accessions and whether they have conservation value. We sequenced a cpDNA region of Dracaena from Mauritius, botanical garden accessions labelled as D. umbraculifera, and individuals confirmed to be D. umbraculifera based on morphology, one of which is a living plant in a private garden. We included GenBank accessions of Dracaena from Madagascar and other locations and reconstructed the phylogeny using Bayesian and parsimony approaches. Phylogenies indicated that D. umbraculifera is more closely related to Dracaena reflexa from Madagascar than to Mauritian Dracaena. As anecdotal information indicated that the living D. umbraculifera originated from Madagascar, we conducted field expeditions there and located five wild populations; the species’ IUCN status should therefore be Critically Endangered because < 50 wild individuals remain. Although the identity of many botanical garden samples remains unresolved, this study highlights the importance of living collections for facilitating new discoveries and the importance of documenting and conserving the flora of Madagascar.
The original illustration of Dracaena umbraculifera from Jacquin (1797)
Dracaena umbraculifera in Ile Sainte-Marie in full flower
photograph by A. Lehavana
Christine E. Edwards, Burgund Bassüner, Chris Birkinshaw, Christian Camara, Adolphe Lehavana, Porter P. Lowry, James S. Miller, Andrew Wyatt and Peter Wyse Jackson. 2018. A Botanical Mystery solved by Phylogenetic Analysis of Botanical Garden Collections: the Rediscovery of the Presumed-Extinct Dracaena umbraculifera. Oryx. DOI: 10.1017/S0030605317001570 ResearchGate.net/publication/322314426_rediscovery_of_Dracaena_umbraculifera
كيف تحصل على مدونة جاهزة بآلاف المواضيع والمشاركات من هنا
شاهد قناة منتدى مدونات بلوجر جاهزة بألاف المواضيع والمشاركات على اليوتيوب لمزيد من الشرح من هنا
رابط مدونة منتدى مدونات بلوجر جاهزة بآلاف المواضيع والمشاركات في أي وقت حــــتى لو تم حذفها من هنا شاهد صفحة منتدى مدونات بلوجر جاهزة بألاف المواضيع والمشاركات على الفيس بوك لمزيد من الشرح من هنا
تعرف على ترتيب مواضيع منتدى مدونات بلوجر جاهزة بآلاف المواضيع والمشاركات (حتى لا تختلط عليك الامور) من هنا
ملاحظة هامة: كل عمليات تنزيل، رفع، وتعديل المواضيع الجاهزة تتم بطريقة آلية، ونعتذر عن اي موضوع مخالف او مخل بالحياء مرفوع بالمدونات الجاهزة بآلاف المواضيع والمشاركات، ولكم ان تقوموا بحذف هذه المواضيع والمشاركات والطريقة بسيطة وسهلة. ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــسلامـ.
• New Zealand King Shag occupied a ‘relict’ distribution for at least the past 240 years.
• Ancient DNA indicates drop in genetic variability and range shortly after human arrival.
• Leucocarbo from northern New Zealand represent new extinct species, Kohatu Shag.
• New Zealand biodiversity hotspot for Phalacrocoracidae.
Abstract
New Zealand’s endemic King Shag (Leucocarbo carunculatus) has occupied only a narrow portion of the northeastern South Island for at least the past 240 years. However, pre-human Holocene fossil and archaeological remains have suggested a far more widespread distribution of the three Leucocarbo species (King, Otago, Foveaux) on mainland New Zealand at the time of Polynesian settlement in the late 13th Century CE. We use modern and ancient DNA, and morphometric and osteological analyses, of modern King Shags and Holocene fossil Leucocarbo remains to assess the pre-human distribution and taxonomic status of the King Shag on mainland New Zealand, and the resultant conservation implications. Our analyses show that the King Shag was formerly widespread around southern coasts of the North Island and the northern parts of the South Island but experienced population and lineage extinctions, and range contraction, probably after Polynesian arrival. This history parallels range contractions of other New Zealand seabirds. Conservation management of the King Shag should take into account this species narrow distribution and probable reduced genetic diversity. Moreover, combined genetic, morphometric and osteological analyses of prehistoric material from mainland New Zealand suggest that the now extinct northern New Zealand Leucocarbo populations comprised a unique lineage. Although these distinctive populations were previously assigned to the King Shag (based on morphological similarities and geographic proximity to modern Leucocarbo populations), we herein describe them as a new species, the Kohatu Shag (Leucocarbo septentrionalis). The extinction of this species further highlights the dramatic impacts Polynesians and introduced predators had on New Zealand’s coastal and marine biodiversity. The prehistoric presence of at least four species of Leucocarbo shag on mainland NZ further highlights its status as a biodiversity hotspot for Phalacrocoracidae.
Keywords: Ancient DNA; Extinct; Holocene fossil; King Shag; Kohatu Shag; Leucocarbo carunculatus; Leucocarbo septentrionalis; New species; New Zealand
Fig. 8. Cranial skeletal elements of the holotype of Kohatu Shag (Leucocarbo septentrionalis; NMNZ S.34434). (a) Lateral view; (b) Dorsal view; (c) Ventral view.
English name: Kohatu Shag; Maori name: Kawau Kohatu
Type locality: Tokerau Beach, Doubtless Bay, Northland, New Zealand.
Etymology: septentrionalis from the medieval Latin for northern. This specific name recognises that this was the northernmost New Zealand member of the genus Leucocarbo. The name Kawau Kohatu in Maori is derived from the phrase ‘Te Ao Kohatu’ and means ‘shag [Kawau] from the stone age before our time [Te Ao Kohatu]’. The name recognises the species was found in Holocene fossil deposits of the iwi Ngati Kuri’s tribal area.
Distribution: Formerly of Northland, New Zealand.
Nicolas J. Rawlence, Charlotte E. Till, Luke J. Easton, Hamish G. Spencer, Rob Schuckard, David S. Melville, R. Paul Scofield, Alan J.D. Tennyson, Matt J. Rayner and Jonathan M. Waters. 2017. Speciation, Range Contraction and Extinction in the Endemic New Zealand King Shag Complex. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution.in press. DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2017.07.011
كيف تحصل على مدونة جاهزة بآلاف المواضيع والمشاركات من هنا
شاهد قناة منتدى مدونات بلوجر جاهزة بألاف المواضيع والمشاركات على اليوتيوب لمزيد من الشرح من هنا
رابط مدونة منتدى مدونات بلوجر جاهزة بآلاف المواضيع والمشاركات في أي وقت حــــتى لو تم حذفها من هنا شاهد صفحة منتدى مدونات بلوجر جاهزة بألاف المواضيع والمشاركات على الفيس بوك لمزيد من الشرح من هنا
تعرف على ترتيب مواضيع منتدى مدونات بلوجر جاهزة بآلاف المواضيع والمشاركات (حتى لا تختلط عليك الامور) من هنا
ملاحظة هامة: كل عمليات تنزيل، رفع، وتعديل المواضيع الجاهزة تتم بطريقة آلية، ونعتذر عن اي موضوع مخالف او مخل بالحياء مرفوع بالمدونات الجاهزة بآلاف المواضيع والمشاركات، ولكم ان تقوموا بحذف هذه المواضيع والمشاركات والطريقة بسيطة وسهلة. ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــسلامـ.
Abstract A new species of extinct bullfinch, Pyrrhula crassa n. sp., is described from bones found in Furna do Calcinhas, a small cave situated at Caldeira, a volcano located in the southeastern portion of the Graciosa Island (Azores archipelago, North Atlantic Ocean). It is the first extinct passerine bird to be described from this archipelago. Both skull and post-cranial bones are larger in the new species than in its relatives, the Eurasian Bullfinch (P. pyrrhula) and the Azores Bullfinch or “Priolo” from São Miguel Island (P. murina), the new species being the largest known in this genus. The morphology of its humerus and the estimated wing length and surface area seem to indicate a flying ability similar to that of the extant P. murina. The possible sources of colonization of the genus into Azores, causes and chronology of extinction of the new species are discussed
Keywords: Aves, Fringillidae, Pyrrhula
FIGURE 5. A: Skull and mandible, lateral view. From top to bottom: Pyrrhula pyrrhula, LARC 2328; P. murina, SPEA 120;Pyrrhula crassa n. sp., based on premaxilla MCMa 2006.016 and mandible MCMa 2002.016. The missing parts have been added using the equivalent parts of P. murina. Scale = 1 cm. B: From top to bottom: aspect of extant P. pyrrhula; P. murina; and possible aspect in life of Pyrrhula crassan. sp. (colours are speculative). Art by Pau Oliver.
Systematic paleontology
Order Passeriformes Linnaeus, 1758
Family Fringillidae (Vigors, 1825)
Subfamily Carduelinae Vigors, 1825
Tribe Pyrrhulini
Genus Pyrrhula Brisson, 1760
Pyrrhula crassa n. sp.
Etymology. From Latin, crassa, thick, referring to the large size of the species and particularly to its notably heavy bill.
Vernacular names proposed: Greater Azores Bullfinch (English) – Priolo maior dos Açores (Portuguese).
J. C. Rando, H. Pieper, Storrs L. Olson, F. Pereira and J. A. Alcover. 2017. A New Extinct Species of Large Bullfinch (Aves: Fringillidae: Pyrrhula) from Graciosa Island (Azores, North Atlantic Ocean). Zootaxa. 4282(3);567–583. DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4282.3.9
Resumo Uma nova espécie extinta de Pyrrhula, P. crassa n. sp., é descrita a partir de ossos encontrados em a Furna do Calcinhas, uma pequena caverna situada na Caldeira, vulcão localizado no sudoeste da ilha Graciosa (Arquipélago dos Açores, Atlântico Norte). É a primeira ave Passeriforme extinta descrita neste arquipélago. Tanto o crânio e os ossos do seu esqueleto pós-craniano são maiores que os dos seus parentes, o dom-fafe Pyrrhula pyrrhula e o priolo Pyrrhula murina. A nova espécie é a maior do gênero. A morfologia do úmero e o tamanho estimado das suas asas indica uma capacidade para o voo semelhante a o priolo. As possíveis fontes de colonização dos Açores por Pyrrhula e as causas e cronologia da extin- ção da espécie nova são discutidas.
A new bird which humans drove to extinction discovered in Azores phy.so/420358270 @physorg_com
كيف تحصل على مدونة جاهزة بآلاف المواضيع والمشاركات من هنا
شاهد قناة منتدى مدونات بلوجر جاهزة بألاف المواضيع والمشاركات على اليوتيوب لمزيد من الشرح من هنا
رابط مدونة منتدى مدونات بلوجر جاهزة بآلاف المواضيع والمشاركات في أي وقت حــــتى لو تم حذفها من هنا شاهد صفحة منتدى مدونات بلوجر جاهزة بألاف المواضيع والمشاركات على الفيس بوك لمزيد من الشرح من هنا
تعرف على ترتيب مواضيع منتدى مدونات بلوجر جاهزة بآلاف المواضيع والمشاركات (حتى لا تختلط عليك الامور) من هنا
ملاحظة هامة: كل عمليات تنزيل، رفع، وتعديل المواضيع الجاهزة تتم بطريقة آلية، ونعتذر عن اي موضوع مخالف او مخل بالحياء مرفوع بالمدونات الجاهزة بآلاف المواضيع والمشاركات، ولكم ان تقوموا بحذف هذه المواضيع والمشاركات والطريقة بسيطة وسهلة. ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــسلامـ.
The cave squeaker Arthroleptis troglodytes Poynton, 1963 was first collected in 1961/62, and not observed again for 54 years despite several attempts to locate it. We rediscovered this species near the type locality in the Chimanimani mountain range in eastern Zimbabwe. We describe for the first time the call and colour in life, and highlight several morphological and habitat features not previously recorded for this species.
Keywords: amphibian, Arthroleptis, high altitude, Possibly Extinct, taxonomy, Zimbabwe
Adult maleArthroleptis troglodytes.
Francois S. Becker and Robert W. Hopkins. 2017. The Rediscovery of A Lost Frog: Arthroleptis troglodytes Poynton, 1963. African Zoology.52(3); 183-187. DOI: 10.1080/15627020.2017.1370982
كيف تحصل على مدونة جاهزة بآلاف المواضيع والمشاركات من هنا
شاهد قناة منتدى مدونات بلوجر جاهزة بألاف المواضيع والمشاركات على اليوتيوب لمزيد من الشرح من هنا
رابط مدونة منتدى مدونات بلوجر جاهزة بآلاف المواضيع والمشاركات في أي وقت حــــتى لو تم حذفها من هنا شاهد صفحة منتدى مدونات بلوجر جاهزة بألاف المواضيع والمشاركات على الفيس بوك لمزيد من الشرح من هنا
تعرف على ترتيب مواضيع منتدى مدونات بلوجر جاهزة بآلاف المواضيع والمشاركات (حتى لا تختلط عليك الامور) من هنا
ملاحظة هامة: كل عمليات تنزيل، رفع، وتعديل المواضيع الجاهزة تتم بطريقة آلية، ونعتذر عن اي موضوع مخالف او مخل بالحياء مرفوع بالمدونات الجاهزة بآلاف المواضيع والمشاركات، ولكم ان تقوموا بحذف هذه المواضيع والمشاركات والطريقة بسيطة وسهلة. ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــسلامـ.
Vepris bali is the first known species of Vepris in WC Africa with opposite, trifoliolate leaves and is further unusual for its long petiolules. Known only from Bali Ngemba Forest Reserve, a remnant of submontane forest under great pressure of degradation in the Bamenda Highlands of Cameroon, it may already be extinct due to tree cutting and agricultural incursions. Here, V. bali is compared with other endemic cloud forest Vepris of the Cameroon Highlands and is described, illustrated, mapped and assessed as Critically Endangered (Possibly Extinct) using IUCN 2012 criteria.
Fig. 1. Vepris bali. A: habit, flowering stem with male inflorescence; B: stem detail showing indumentum and lenticels; C: abaxial leaf surface showing oil glands; D: portion of partial-inflorescence showing bracts; E: male flower, side view; F: male flower, 2 sepals and petals removed and staminal filaments truncated; G: cross-section of rudimentary pistil.
Drawn from the holotype, Ujor FHI 30422 (K), by Hazel Wilks.
Vepris bali Cheek, sp. nov.
– Toddaliopsisebolowensis sensu Letouzey (1963: 108), non Engl. (1917: 305).
– Vepris cf. heterophylla sensu Mziray (1992: 73), non (Engl.) Letouzey (1966: 246).
Diagnosis — Differing from Vepris ebolowensis (Engl.) Onana in being a submontane tree, with a trunk c. 28 cm in diam, at 1.5 m from ground, leaves opposite, and median petiolules 9–14 mm long (whereas V.ebolowensis is a shrub of lowland forest, with leaves alternate, and median petiolules c. 0 mm long).
Holotype: Cameroon, Northwest Region, “Bamenda District, Bali-Ngemba Forest Reserve, in high forest on ... at the height of 1700 m. alt. with Uapaca sp., Garcinia sp., and Aningeria”, male fl., Mar 1951, Ujor FHI 30422 (K; isotype: FHI n.v.).
....
Etymology — The specific epithet is a noun in apposition, from the town and people of Bali in the Bamenda Highlands of the Northwest Region of Cameroon, near which, in the Bali Ngemba Forest Reserve, the only known locality for this tree is found.
Martin Cheek, George Gosline and Jean-Michel Onana. 2018. Vepris bali (Rutaceae), A New Critically Endangered (possibly Extinct) Cloud Forest Tree Species from Bali Ngemba, Cameroon. Willdenowia. 48(2); 285-292. DOI: 10.3372/wi.48.48207
كيف تحصل على مدونة جاهزة بآلاف المواضيع والمشاركات من هنا
شاهد قناة منتدى مدونات بلوجر جاهزة بألاف المواضيع والمشاركات على اليوتيوب لمزيد من الشرح من هنا
رابط مدونة منتدى مدونات بلوجر جاهزة بآلاف المواضيع والمشاركات في أي وقت حــــتى لو تم حذفها من هنا شاهد صفحة منتدى مدونات بلوجر جاهزة بألاف المواضيع والمشاركات على الفيس بوك لمزيد من الشرح من هنا
تعرف على ترتيب مواضيع منتدى مدونات بلوجر جاهزة بآلاف المواضيع والمشاركات (حتى لا تختلط عليك الامور) من هنا
ملاحظة هامة: كل عمليات تنزيل، رفع، وتعديل المواضيع الجاهزة تتم بطريقة آلية، ونعتذر عن اي موضوع مخالف او مخل بالحياء مرفوع بالمدونات الجاهزة بآلاف المواضيع والمشاركات، ولكم ان تقوموا بحذف هذه المواضيع والمشاركات والطريقة بسيطة وسهلة. ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــسلامـ.
Thismia Griffith (1844: 221), Thismiaceae J. Agardh or Burmanniaceae sensu APG VI (2016), is one of the most species-rich mycoheterotrophic genera, consisting of ca. 80 species (Jonker 1948, Merckx et al. 2013). Considering that most of these species were collected only once (Jonker 1948) and that many new species have recently been discovered in various Asian countries (e.g. Suetsugu et al. 2017, 2018), many more undescribed species are likely in these regions.
Oxygyne Schlechter (1906: 140) is a rare, mycoheterotrophic plant genus that consists of six species. It has one of the most remarkable distributions of all angiosperm genera and is disjunct between Japan and western Central Africa (Cheek et al. 2018). Although O. hyodoi Abe & Akasawa (1989: 161) was described based on the specimens discovered in Ehime Prefecture, Kobayashi & Kurosaki (1993) noted that a specimen that was morphologically similar to O. hyodoi was also discovered in Kobe City, Hyogo Prefecture. However, the specimen differed from O. hyodoi in many features. As noted by Tsukaya (2016), characters such as the prominent annulus on the perianth tube suggested that it may not even belong to the genus Oxygyne. In addition, although it was identified as O. hyodoi based on its short perianth lobes (Kurosaki, personal communication), such flowers have also been noted in the genus Thismia (Tsukaya 2016). Therefore, it is highly probable that the specimen collected in Kobe was not O. hyodoi, but a Thismia species (Tsukaya 2016).
So far, only one specimen of the putatively unknown Thismia species has been found, and two of the three inner perianth-lobes in this specimen were broken. In addition, the population was almost certainly destroyed during construction of an industrial complex, and no additional specimens have been found. Fortunately, the other parts of this specimen, including an inner perianth-lobe and all three of the outer perianth-lobes were completely preserved, so we conducted a taxonomic investigation using this specimen. Careful examination revealed that the unknown plant actually belongs to the genus Thismia. Here, we describe it as a new species, Thismia kobensis Suetsugu, as this specimen was found to have a significantly different floral morphology from the other known Thismia species. In addition, the unknown species belonged to the section Rodwaya Schlechter (1921: 38), as it had the vermiform, creeping roots, the inner perianth lobes without free filiform appendages and inner perianth lobes connivent at their apex. Here, we describe it as a new species, with discussions on the taxonomic validity of the section Glaziocharis (Taub. ex Warm.) Hatusima (1976: 4).
FIGURE 2. Thismia kobensis (from the holotype).
A–B. Flowering plant. C. Flower, upper view. D. Flattened perianth tube. E. Stamens, inner view. F. Stamens, outer view. G. Style and stigma. Two broken inner perianth lobes are indicated by the dotted lines in A, B and D.
Drawn by Kumi Hamasaki. Bar = 1 mm.
FIGURE 1. Thismia kobensis (holotype) from the type locality.
Thismia kobensis Suetsugu, sp. nov.
Type:— JAPAN, Hyogo Prefecture, Kobe City, Nishi-ku, Oshibedani-cho, Komi, ...alt. 200 m, 10 June 1992, Nakanishi & Kobayashi 22380 (holotype: HYO, in spirit collection).
Thismia kobensis is close to T. huangii Jiang & Hsieh (2011: 139) from Taiwan but differs in having a hexagonal prismatic perianth tube, white tepals and free stamens
Distribution:— Japan (so far known from only type locality).
Preliminary conservation status:— Extinct (EX). Thisima kobensis is known from only a single individual at Kobe City, Hyogo Prefecture. The specimen was collected in secondary forest dominated by Quercus serrata and Q. glauca in 10 June 1992. Although intensive surveys of the population discovered in June were conducted from 1992 to 1999, we did not discover additional T. kobensis plants. In 1999, the area was completely destroyed during the construction of an industrial complex. Since then, we have searched the surrounding intact areas in June each year but have failed to record any individuals. It is highly likely that the last individual has died, and this taxon is presumed extinct, although we need further efforts to discover additional individuals.
Notes:— According to Jonker (1938), Thismia kobensis belongs to the section Rodwaya, as it has vermiform and creeping roots, inner perianth lobes without free filiform appendages and inner perianth lobes that are connivent apically. In the section Rodwaya, T. kobensis is most similar to T.huangii from Taiwan, in having a dark-orange annulus, yellow and truncate connectives with hairs, stigma lobes with hairs and no nectaries. However, it is easily distinguished from T. huangii in having a hexagonal prismatic and less hairy perianth tube (vs. urn-shaped and densely hairy perianth tube), white tepals (vs. pale orange to yellow), and stamens free from each other (vs. adnate, forming a tube around the style).
In addition, in having the stamens free from each other, T. kobensis is somewhat similar to T. abei (Akasawa) Hatusima (1976: 7) that belongs to the section Glaziocharis. So far, free stamens have not been reported in any species of Thismia except T. abei. However, T. kobensis clearly differs from T. abei in having a hexagonal prismatic perianth tube (vs. urn-shaped perianth tube), dark orange prominent annulus (white inconspicuous annulus), yellow rectangular connective (vs. white spatulate connective), outer perianth lobes without filiform appendages (vs. outer perianth lobes with long filiform appendages). Because appendages of the outer perianth lobes are considered a diagnostic character to distinguish sections Glaziocharis and Rodwaya (Kumar et al. 2017), we believe that T. kobensis is a member of Rodwaya. However, it should also be noted that several recent molecular studies suggested that the appendages of perianth lobes have little systematic significance in Thismia (Hunt et al. 2014, Merckx & Smets 2014, Kumar et al. 2017, Sochor et al. 2018). Actually, molecular results have clearly suggested that section Glaziocharis is not monophyletic and should be incorporated in section Rodwaya (Hunt et al. 2014, Merckx & Smets 2014, Kumar et al. 2017). Both our results (i.e., similarity of stamen morphology between T. kobensis and T. abei) and molecular analyses indicate that it is not necessary to distinguish Glaziocharis and Rodwaya as distict sections.
Given that mycoheterotrophic plants are highly dependent on the activities of both the fungi and the trees that sustain them (Suetsugu et al. 2014, 2017b), they are particularly sensitive to environmental disturbance. Therefore, most mycoheterotrophic species are rare and seriously endangered. Furthermore, our study clearly indicated that some mycoheterotrophic plants have become extinct before being described. As the precise identification of most mycoheterotrophic plants requires detailed observations of floral organs that are hidden in the perianth tube (Tsukaya & Hidayat 2016, Suetsugu 2017a, b), re-examination of herbarium specimens will be useful for understanding both past and current diversity of the mycoheterotrophic flora.
Kenji Suetsugu, Osamu Nakanishi, Tomiki Kobayashi and Nobuhira Kurosaki. 2018. Thismia kobensis (Burmanniaceae), A New and Presumably Extinct Species from Hyogo Prefecture, Japan. Phytotaxa. 369(2); 121–125. DOI: 10.11646/phytotaxa.369.2.6
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ملاحظة هامة: كل عمليات تنزيل، رفع، وتعديل المواضيع الجاهزة تتم بطريقة آلية، ونعتذر عن اي موضوع مخالف او مخل بالحياء مرفوع بالمدونات الجاهزة بآلاف المواضيع والمشاركات، ولكم ان تقوموا بحذف هذه المواضيع والمشاركات والطريقة بسيطة وسهلة. ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــسلامـ.
