[Botany • 2017] Cypripedium × fred-mulleri • First Guatemalan Record of Natural Hybridisation between Neotropical Species of the Lady’s Slipper Orchid (Orchidaceae, Cypripedioideae) ---ScRaBBlE

Cypripedium × fred-mulleri  Szlach., Kolan. & Górniak

in Szlachetko, Kolanowska, Muller, Vannini, Rojek & Górniak​, 2017

 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.4162 

Abstract

The first natural hybrid in the section Irapeana of the orchid genus Cypripedium is described and illustrated based on Guatemalan material. A molecular evaluation of the discovery is provided. Specimens with intermediate flowers between C. irapeanum and C. dickinsonianum within ITS and Xdh sequences have the signal sequence of both these species. The analysis of plastid sequences indicated that the maternal line is C. irapeanum. Information about the ecology, embryology and conservation status of the novelty is given, together with a distribution map of its parental species, C. irapeanum and C. dickinsonianum. A discussion of the hybridization between Cypripedium species is presented. The potential hybrid zones between the representatives of Cypripedium section Irapeana which were estimated based on the results of ecological niche modeling analysis are located in the Maya Highlands (C. dickinsonianum and C. irapeanum) and the eastern part of Southern Sierra Madre (C. molle and C. irapeanum). Moreover, all three Cypripedium species could inhabit Cordillera Neovolcánica according to the obtained models; however, it should be noticed that this region is well-distanced from the edges of the known geographical range of C. molle.

 Figure 10: Flowers of Cypripedium. Cypripedium dickinsonianum (A), C. irapeanum (B) and Cypripedium × fred-mulleri   (C). Photos by F Muller. 

Figure 9: Habit of  Cypripedium × fred-mulleri.  Photo by F Muller. 

Figure 9: Comparison of the habit of Cypripedium dickinsonianum (A), C. irapeanum (B)

Photos by F Muller. 

Taxonomic treatment

Due to the detection of gene flow between C. dickinsonianum and C. irapeanum and mixed morphological characters of the population discovered by Mr Muller in Guatemala we decided to describe it as the first, natural hybrid in the section Irapeana under the name Cypripedium × fred-mulleri.

Cypripedium × fred-mulleri Szlach., Kolan. & Górniak, hybr. nov.

Diagnosis: Cypripedium × fred-mulleri is characterized by having flowers 5.2–7 cm across, elliptic, acute dorsal sepal, oblong-elliptic, obtuse petals, deeply saccate, obovoid-globose lip and trullate, acute staminode. It differs from C. irapeanum in its smaller flowers, deeper color (closer to C. dickinsonianum), density of windows on the lip, and form of dorsal sepal and petal apex. From C. dickinsonianum it is distinguished, inter alia, by the shape of the staminode and lip as well as by the petal form.

Type: Guatemala, Alta Verapaz. South of Cobán. 30 May 2013. F. Muller s.n. (BIGU! 309 holotype). UGDA-DLSz! - drawing of type, photos.

 Etymology: Dedicated to the discoverer of this hybrid, Fred Muller.

Distribution: Known so far to be exclusively from the Guatemalan department of Alta Verapaz. Due to the vulnerability of populations of C. irapeanum, C. dickinsonianum and C. × fred-mulleri to illicit harvesting, the exact locality is not given. The known localities of C. irapeanum are distributed from Central Mexico to Guatemala and Honduras while the currently known range of C. dickinsonianum is discontinuous, extending from eastern Chiapas (México), through the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes and the Sierra de Chamá to the central Honduran uplands (although herbarium vouchers are currently lacking Dix & Dix, 2000). Figure 8.

Ecology: The hybrid population was found on a south-oriented limestone hillside at an altitude of about 1,500 m. The plants grow in an open, seasonally dry pine-oak forest with Brahea dulcis (Kunth) Mart. (Arecaceae) and species of Agave L. (Asparagaceae). Other terrestrial orchid species occurring in this area are: Cyrtopodium punctatum (L.) Lindl., Stenorrhynchos pubens (A. Rich. & Galeotti) Schltr. and Dichromanthus cinnabarinus (La Llave & Lex.) Garay. Moreover, two species of Bletia Ruiz & Pav. have been reported from this location. The hybrid plants begin blooming in mid-May, at the beginning of the rainy season. The flowers have been observed as late as at the end of July, which is the beginning of the flowering season for both C. irapeanum and C. dickinsonianum in nearby colonies. Field observations in 2013 suggested that the population might have benefited from a recent wild fire, as a significant increase in the number of flowering specimens had previously been recorded in the season following a fire at the locality.

Dariusz L. Szlachetko, Marta Kolanowska, Fred Muller, Jay Vannini, Joanna Rojek and Marcin Górniak​. 2017.   First Guatemalan Record of Natural Hybridisation between Neotropical Species of the Lady’s Slipper Orchid (Orchidaceae, Cypripedioideae). PeerJ. 5:e4162.  DOI: 10.7717/peerj.4162

     

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روابط التحميل والمشاهدة، الروابط المباشرة للتحميل

من هنا

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شاهد هذا الفيديو القصير لطريقة التحميل البسيطة

منتدى مدونات بلوجر جاهزة بآلاف المواضيع والمشاركات

كيف تحصل على مدونة جاهزة بآلاف المواضيع والمشاركات من هنا

شاهد قناة منتدى مدونات بلوجر جاهزة بألاف المواضيع والمشاركات على اليوتيوب لمزيد من الشرح من هنا

رابط مدونة منتدى مدونات بلوجر جاهزة بآلاف المواضيع والمشاركات في أي وقت حــــتى لو تم حذفها من هنا
شاهد صفحة منتدى مدونات بلوجر جاهزة بألاف المواضيع والمشاركات على الفيس بوك لمزيد من الشرح من هنا

تعرف على ترتيب مواضيع منتدى مدونات بلوجر جاهزة بآلاف المواضيع والمشاركات (حتى لا تختلط عليك الامور) من هنا

ملاحظة هامة: كل عمليات تنزيل، رفع، وتعديل المواضيع الجاهزة تتم بطريقة آلية، ونعتذر عن اي موضوع مخالف او مخل بالحياء مرفوع بالمدونات الجاهزة بآلاف المواضيع والمشاركات، ولكم ان تقوموا بحذف هذه المواضيع والمشاركات والطريقة بسيطة وسهلة. ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــسلامـ.

[Mammalogy • 2019] Taxonomic Status of the Australian Dingo: the Case for Canis dingo Meyer, 1793 ---ScRaBBlE

Canis dingo Meyer, 1793

An example of a typical dingo phenotype. Photograph depicts a male from K’gari-Fraser Island (Queensland) by John Williams. 

in Smith, Cairns, Adams, et al., 2019.

DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4564.1.6

Abstract 

The taxonomic status and systematic nomenclature of the Australian dingo remain contentious, resulting in decades of inconsistent applications in the scientific literature and in policy. Prompted by a recent publication calling for dingoes to be considered taxonomically as domestic dogs (Jackson et al. 2017, Zootaxa 4317, 201-224), we review the issues of the taxonomy applied to canids, and summarise the main differences between dingoes and other canids. We conclude that (1) the Australian dingo is a geographically isolated (allopatric) species from all other Canis, and is genetically, phenotypically, ecologically, and behaviourally distinct; and (2) the dingo appears largely devoid of many of the signs of domestication, including surviving largely as a wild animal in Australia for millennia. The case of defining dingo taxonomy provides a quintessential example of the disagreements between species concepts (e.g., biological, phylogenetic, ecological, morphological). Applying the biological species concept sensu stricto to the dingo as suggested by Jackson et al. (2017) and consistently across the Canidae would lead to an aggregation of all Canis populations, implying for example that dogs and wolves are the same species. Such an aggregation would have substantial implications for taxonomic clarity, biological research, and wildlife conservation. Any changes to the current nomen of the dingo (currently Canis dingo Meyer, 1793), must therefore offer a strong, evidence-based argument in favour of it being recognised as a subspecies of Canis lupus Linnaeus, 1758, or as Canis familiaris Linnaeus, 1758, and a successful application to the International Commission for Zoological Nomenclature - neither of which can be adequately supported. Although there are many species concepts, the sum of the evidence presented in this paper affirms the classification of the dingo as a distinct taxon, namely Canis dingo.

Keywords: Mammalia, dingo, dog, canid, Canidae, domestication, hybridisation, nomenclature, species concept, taxonomy

FIGURE 1. An example of a typical dingo phenotype. Photograph depicts a male from K’gari-Fraser Island (Queensland) by John Williams. 

FIGURE 1. An example of a typical dingo phenotype. Photograph depicts a male from K’gari-Fraser Island (Queensland) by John Williams.
FIGURE 2. Cranial 3-D reconstructions of a dingo (bottom) and a free-ranging dog (top), highlighting the differences in cranial morphology mentioned in the text. The dog cranium has been scaled to match the length of the dingo cranium to facilitate the comparison of feature shape. The dingo (male) was collected from Minburra Station in South Australia. The dog (female, 14.5 kg) was collected in 1981 from the Victorian Highlands (Evan Jones Collection). 

 Bradley P. Smith, Kylie M. Cairns, Justin W. Adams, Thomas M. Newsome, Melanie Fillios, Eloïse C. Déaux, William C. H. Parr, Mike Letnic, Lily M. V. Eeden, Robert M. Appleby, Corey J. A. Bradshaw, Peter Savolainen, Euan G. Ritchie, Dale G. Nimmo, Clare Archer-Lean, Aaron C. Greenville, Christopher R. Dickman, Lyn Watson, Katherine E. Moseby, Tim S. Doherty, Arian D. Wallach, Damian S. Morrant and Mathew S. Crowther. 2019. Taxonomic Status of the Australian Dingo: the Case for Canis dingo Meyer, 1793. Zootaxa. 4564(1); 173–197. DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4564.1.6

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روابط التحميل والمشاهدة، الروابط المباشرة للتحميل

من هنا

او

من هنا

شاهد هذا الفيديو القصير لطريقة التحميل البسيطة

منتدى مدونات بلوجر جاهزة بآلاف المواضيع والمشاركات

كيف تحصل على مدونة جاهزة بآلاف المواضيع والمشاركات من هنا

شاهد قناة منتدى مدونات بلوجر جاهزة بألاف المواضيع والمشاركات على اليوتيوب لمزيد من الشرح من هنا

رابط مدونة منتدى مدونات بلوجر جاهزة بآلاف المواضيع والمشاركات في أي وقت حــــتى لو تم حذفها من هنا
شاهد صفحة منتدى مدونات بلوجر جاهزة بألاف المواضيع والمشاركات على الفيس بوك لمزيد من الشرح من هنا

تعرف على ترتيب مواضيع منتدى مدونات بلوجر جاهزة بآلاف المواضيع والمشاركات (حتى لا تختلط عليك الامور) من هنا

ملاحظة هامة: كل عمليات تنزيل، رفع، وتعديل المواضيع الجاهزة تتم بطريقة آلية، ونعتذر عن اي موضوع مخالف او مخل بالحياء مرفوع بالمدونات الجاهزة بآلاف المواضيع والمشاركات، ولكم ان تقوموا بحذف هذه المواضيع والمشاركات والطريقة بسيطة وسهلة. ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــسلامـ.

[Ornithology • 2018] Discovery of A Rare Hybrid Specimen Known as Maria’s Bird of Paradise at the Staatliches Naturhistorisches Museum in Braunschweig ---ScRaBBlE

Figure 1. Plate of the male hybrid bird of paradise Paradisaea maria from Reichenow (1897). 

Figure 2. Plates of Paradisaea guilielmi (upper) and P. raggiana augustaevictoriae (lower),
the presumed parental species of P. maria, related to the original descriptions by Cabanis (1888).  

Reproduced from the Biodiversity heritage library (biodiversitylibrary.com). 

in Koch, 2018.   DOI: 10.3897/zse.94.25139 

Abstract

The discovery of a rare hybrid specimen of Maria’s bird of paradise (Paradisaea maria, i.e., P. guilielmi × P. raggiana augustaevictoriae) in the ornithological collection of the Staatliches Naturhistorisches Museum in Braunschweig (SNMB) is reported. Until today only six male specimens (deposited in the natural history museums in Berlin and New York) and presumably one female have been identified in collections world-wide. The male specimen in Braunschweig corresponds well in its plumage colouration with an historical illustration and photographs of the original type specimen from the 19th century housed at the Berlin collection. It shows intermediate characteristics between both parental species, viz. the Emperor bird of paradise (P. guilielmi) and the Raggiana bird of paradise (P. raggiana augustaevictoriae). In addition, we try to elucidate the circumstances how this rare specimen of hybrid origin, which formerly belonged to the natural history collection of the factory owner Walter Behrens from Bad Harzburg, came to the SNMB. Our unexpected discovery highlights the importance to maintain, support and study also smaller private natural history collections, since they may house historical voucher specimens of high scientific value.

Key Words: Paradisaea maria, Ornithology, Natural history collections, New Guinea, Type specimens, Hybridisation, Private collector, Walter Behrens, Haus der Natur

 André Koch. 2018. Discovery of A Rare Hybrid Specimen Known as Maria’s Bird of Paradise at the Staatliches Naturhistorisches Museum in Braunschweig. Zoosystematics and Evolution. 94(2): 315-324.  DOI: 10.3897/zse.94.25139

Zusammenfassung: Es wird über die Entdeckung eines seltenen Exemplars des Hybrid-Paradiesvogels Paradisaea maria (d.h. Paradisaea guilielmi × P. raggiana augustaevictoriae), in der ornithologischen Sammlung des Staatlichen Naturhistorischen Museums in Braunschweig (SNMB) berichtet. Bis heute sind lediglich sechs männliche (aus den Museen in Berlin und New York) und vermutlich ein weibliches Exemplar in internationalen Naturkundesammlungen bekannt geworden. Das männliche Exemplar aus Braunschweig entspricht in seiner Gefiederfärbung einer historischen Abbildung und Fotos des ursprünglichen Typusexemplars aus dem 19. Jahrhundert, das sich im Berliner Museum befindet. Es zeigt deutlich intermediäre Merkmalsausprägungen zwischen den beiden Elternarten, dem Kaiserparadiesvogel (P. guilielmi) und dem Raggi-Paradiesvogel (P. raggiana augustaevictoriae). Die Umstände, wie dieser seltene Hybrid-Paradiesvogel, der ehemals Teil der Sammlung des Fabrikanten Walter Behrens aus Bad Harzburg war, in die SNMB-Sammlung gelangte, werden erläutert. Unsere unerwartete Entdeckung unterstreicht die Bedeutung, auch kleinere private naturkundliche Sammlungen zu bewahren, zu erhalten und zu erforschen, da sie historische Belegexemplare von hoher wissenschaftlicher Bedeutung enthalten können.

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روابط التحميل والمشاهدة، الروابط المباشرة للتحميل

من هنا

او

من هنا

شاهد هذا الفيديو القصير لطريقة التحميل البسيطة

منتدى مدونات بلوجر جاهزة بآلاف المواضيع والمشاركات

كيف تحصل على مدونة جاهزة بآلاف المواضيع والمشاركات من هنا

شاهد قناة منتدى مدونات بلوجر جاهزة بألاف المواضيع والمشاركات على اليوتيوب لمزيد من الشرح من هنا

رابط مدونة منتدى مدونات بلوجر جاهزة بآلاف المواضيع والمشاركات في أي وقت حــــتى لو تم حذفها من هنا
شاهد صفحة منتدى مدونات بلوجر جاهزة بألاف المواضيع والمشاركات على الفيس بوك لمزيد من الشرح من هنا

تعرف على ترتيب مواضيع منتدى مدونات بلوجر جاهزة بآلاف المواضيع والمشاركات (حتى لا تختلط عليك الامور) من هنا

ملاحظة هامة: كل عمليات تنزيل، رفع، وتعديل المواضيع الجاهزة تتم بطريقة آلية، ونعتذر عن اي موضوع مخالف او مخل بالحياء مرفوع بالمدونات الجاهزة بآلاف المواضيع والمشاركات، ولكم ان تقوموا بحذف هذه المواضيع والمشاركات والطريقة بسيطة وسهلة. ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــسلامـ.

[Mammalogy • 2018] Multi-locus Phylogeny of the Tribe Tragelaphini (Mammalia, Bovidae) and Species Delimitation in Bushbuck: Evidence for Chromosomal Speciation Mediated by Interspecific Hybridization ---ScRaBBlE

in Hassanin, Houck, Tshikung,et al., 2018. 

 DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2018.08.006  

Highlights

• Two species of bushbuck: Tragelaphus scriptus in NW Africa and T. sylvaticus in SE Africa.

• The two species have 2n = 57M/58F and 2n = 33M/34F chromosomes, respectively.

• T. scriptus is related to T. angasii with mtDNA, and to T. sylvaticus with nuDNA.

 • Mitochondrial introgressive hybridization in the common ancestor of T. scriptus.

• Evidence for chromosomal speciation after an event of interspecific hybridization.

Abstract

The bushbuck is the most widespread bovid species in Africa. Previous mitochondrial studies have revealed a polyphyletic pattern suggesting the possible existence of two distinct species.

To assess this issue, we have sequenced 16 nuclear genes and one mitochondrial fragment (cytochrome b gene + control region) for most species of the tribe Tragelaphini, including seven bushbuck individuals belonging to the two divergent mtDNA haplogroups, Scriptus and Sylvaticus. Our phylogenetic analyses show that the Scriptus lineage is a sister-group of Sylvaticus in the nuclear tree, whereas it is related to Tragelaphus angasii in the mitochondrial tree. This mito-nuclear discordance indicates that the mitochondrial genome of Scriptus was acquired by introgression after one or several past events of hybridization between bushbuck and an extinct species closely related to T. angasii. The division into two bushbuck species is supported by the analyses of nuclear markers and by the karyotype here described for T. scriptus (2n= 57M/58F), which is strikingly distinct from the one previously found for T. sylvaticus (2n= 33M/34F). Molecular dating estimates suggest that the two species separated during the Early Pleistocene after an event of interspecific hybridization, which may have mediated massive chromosomal rearrangements in the common ancestor of T. scriptus.

Keywords: Spiral-horned antelopes, species complex, introgressive hybridization, chromosomes, cytogenetics

Figure 3. Bayesian divergence times (in million years ago, Mya) estimated using the nuclear concatenation of 16 genes (A) or the mitochondrial fragment (B). Divergence times were estimated with BEAST 2.4.7 (see main text for details). Taxa other than Tragelaphini were removed from the figures. Bold values at the nodes are mean ages. Grey bars and values between brackets represent the 95% Highest Posterior Density (HPD) interval.

 Alexandre Hassanin, Marlys L. Houck, Didier Tshikung, Blaise Kadjo, Heidi Davis and Anne Ropiquet. 2018. Multi-locus Phylogeny of the Tribe Tragelaphini (Mammalia, Bovidae) and Species Delimitation in Bushbuck: Evidence for Chromosomal Speciation Mediated by Interspecific Hybridization. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. In Press.  DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2018.08.006 

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روابط التحميل والمشاهدة، الروابط المباشرة للتحميل

من هنا

او

من هنا

شاهد هذا الفيديو القصير لطريقة التحميل البسيطة

منتدى مدونات بلوجر جاهزة بآلاف المواضيع والمشاركات

كيف تحصل على مدونة جاهزة بآلاف المواضيع والمشاركات من هنا

شاهد قناة منتدى مدونات بلوجر جاهزة بألاف المواضيع والمشاركات على اليوتيوب لمزيد من الشرح من هنا

رابط مدونة منتدى مدونات بلوجر جاهزة بآلاف المواضيع والمشاركات في أي وقت حــــتى لو تم حذفها من هنا
شاهد صفحة منتدى مدونات بلوجر جاهزة بألاف المواضيع والمشاركات على الفيس بوك لمزيد من الشرح من هنا

تعرف على ترتيب مواضيع منتدى مدونات بلوجر جاهزة بآلاف المواضيع والمشاركات (حتى لا تختلط عليك الامور) من هنا

ملاحظة هامة: كل عمليات تنزيل، رفع، وتعديل المواضيع الجاهزة تتم بطريقة آلية، ونعتذر عن اي موضوع مخالف او مخل بالحياء مرفوع بالمدونات الجاهزة بآلاف المواضيع والمشاركات، ولكم ان تقوموا بحذف هذه المواضيع والمشاركات والطريقة بسيطة وسهلة. ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــسلامـ.

[Ornithology • 2017] Heliangelus zusii • An Extinct Hummingbird Species That Never Was: A Cautionary Tale About Sampling Issues in Molecular Phylogenetics ---ScRaBBlE

Phylogenetic relationships among species and populations of Aglaiocercus, Taphrolesbia, the Rogitama hybrid hummingbird, and Heliangelus zusii based on sequences of the ND2 mitochondrial gene. Strongly supported nodes (0.95 Bayesian posterior probability, 80% maximum-likelihood bootstrap) are indicated with black dots. Although nodal support for deep branches is low, note that both the Rogitama bird and H. zusii have haplotypes closely allied to those of A. kingii from the Eastern Andes of Colombia, indicating they are both hybrids sharing A. kingii as female parent.

in Perez-Eman, Ferreira, Gutierrez-Pinto, et al., 2017.

 DOI:  10.1101/149898  

Illustrations courtesy of Lynx Edicions; Handbook of the Birds of the World, Vol. 15, 1999.

Abstract

The Bogota Sunangel (Heliangelus zusii) was described based on a historical specimen lacking locality data as a striking - and potentially extinct - new species of hummingbird more than two decades ago. However, it was considered a dubious taxon by some researchers until a molecular study with strong species-level taxon sampling revealed its phylogenetic affinities and validated its status as a distinct species. We reanalysed existing mitochondrial DNA data together with a new data set sampling multiple populations of the Long-tailed Sylph (Aglaiocercus kingii), a species broadly distributed in the Andes of South America. In contrast to previous work, we found that H. zusii shares a haplotype with specimens of A. kingii from the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia, which is phylogenetically nested within a clade formed by populations of A. kingii from the Colombian Andes. These results suggest that H. zusii is not a distinct species, but is most likely the result of hybridization between a female A. kingii and a male of another hummingbird species. These findings highlight the importance of thorough taxonomic and geographic sampling when assessing the likelihood of hybrid origin of an organism, particularly in cases potentially involving wide-ranging species in areas where deep phylogeographic structure is likely.

Keywords: Aglaiocercus, geographic sampling, Heliangelus zusii, hybridization, phylogeography.

Figure 1. (A) Geographic ranges of Aglaiocercus kingii, A. coelestis, and Taphrolesbia griseiventris in northern South America (polygons), and geographic provenance of specimens of these species and of the Rogitama hybrid hummingbird included in molecular phylogenetic analyses (dots and star).

Figure 1. (A) Geographic ranges of Aglaiocercus kingii, A. coelestis, and Taphrolesbia griseiventris in northern South America (polygons), and geographic provenance of specimens of these species and of the Rogitama hybrid hummingbird included in molecular phylogenetic analyses (dots and star).
(B) Phylogenetic relationships among species and populations of Aglaiocercus, Taphrolesbia, the Rogitama hybrid hummingbird, and Heliangelus zusii based on sequences of the ND2 mitochondrial gene. Strongly supported nodes (0.95 Bayesian posterior probability, 80% maximum-likelihood bootstrap) are indicated with black dots. Although nodal support for deep branches is low, note that both the Rogitama bird and H. zusii have haplotypes closely allied to those of A. kingii from the Eastern Andes of Colombia, indicating they are both hybrids sharing A. kingii as female parent.

 Illustrations courtesy of Lynx Edicions; Handbook of the Birds of the World, Vol. 15, 1999.

Jorge L. Perez-Eman, Jhoniel Perdigon Ferreira, Natalia Gutierrez-Pinto, Andres M. Cuervo, Laura N. Cespedes, Christopher C. Witt and Carlos Daniel Cadena. 2017. An Extinct Hummingbird Species That Never Was: A Cautionary Tale About Sampling Issues in Molecular Phylogenetics. bioRxiv. DOI:  10.1101/149898 

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ملاحظة هامة: كل عمليات تنزيل، رفع، وتعديل المواضيع الجاهزة تتم بطريقة آلية، ونعتذر عن اي موضوع مخالف او مخل بالحياء مرفوع بالمدونات الجاهزة بآلاف المواضيع والمشاركات، ولكم ان تقوموا بحذف هذه المواضيع والمشاركات والطريقة بسيطة وسهلة. ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــسلامـ.